Psychological Disorders

NCERT Class 12 Psychology Chapter 4: Psychological Disorders

Psychological Disorders

Psychological disorders, also known as mental disorders, are patterns of behavioral or psychological symptoms that impact multiple areas of life. These disorders create distress for the person experiencing these symptoms.

Classification of Psychological Disorders

Psychological disorders are classified based on the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5). The main categories include:

Anxiety Disorders
Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders
Trauma- and Stressor-Related Disorders
Somatic Symptom and Related Disorders
Dissociative Disorders
Depressive Disorders
Bipolar and Related Disorders
Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psychotic Disorders
Personality Disorders

Anxiety Disorders

Anxiety disorders involve excessive fear or anxiety. Examples include:

Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD): Chronic and exaggerated worry and tension, even when there is little or nothing to provoke it.
Panic Disorder: Recurrent, unexpected panic attacks—sudden periods of intense fear.
Phobias: Intense, irrational fears of specific objects or situations.

Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders

Characterized by obsessive, intrusive thoughts and compulsive behaviors. Examples include:

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD): Involves unwanted and intrusive thoughts (obsessions) and repetitive behaviors or mental acts (compulsions) that the person feels driven to perform.
Body Dysmorphic Disorder: Preoccupation with perceived defects or flaws in physical appearance that are not observable or appear slight to others.

Trauma- and Stressor-Related Disorders

These disorders are caused by exposure to a traumatic or stressful event. Examples include:

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): Persistent mental and emotional stress as a result of injury or severe psychological shock, typically involving disturbance of sleep and constant vivid recall of the experience.
Acute Stress Disorder: Similar to PTSD, but occurs immediately after the trauma and lasts for a shorter duration.

Somatic Symptom and Related Disorders

Involves having a significant focus on physical symptoms, such as pain or fatigue, which causes major emotional distress and problems functioning. Examples include:

Somatic Symptom Disorder: Extreme focus on physical symptoms, such as pain or fatigue, that causes major emotional distress and problems functioning.
Illness Anxiety Disorder: Preoccupation with having or acquiring a serious illness.

Salient Features of Somatic Symptom and Related Disorders and Dissociative Disorders

Disorder Category	Disorder	Salient Features
Dissociative Disorders	Dissociative Amnesia	The person is unable to recall important, personal information often related to a stressful and traumatic event. The extent of forgetting is beyond normal.
	Depersonalisation/Derealisation Disorder	The person experiences a change in their sense of reality and perception of self.
	Dissociative Identity (Multiple Personality) Disorder	The person exhibits two or more separate and contrasting personalities, generally associated with a history of abuse.
Somatic Symptom and Related Disorders	Somatic Symptom Disorder	The person experiences body-related symptoms in the absence of any medical condition (or even if a medical condition is present, it is not as serious as the symptoms presented).
	Illness Anxiety Disorder	The person experiences worry about the possibility of developing a serious medical condition.
	Conversion Disorder	The person suffers from a loss or impairment of motor or sensory function (e.g., paralysis, blindness, etc.) that has no physical cause but may be a response to stress and psychological problems.

Dissociative Disorders

Involves problems with memory, identity, emotion, perception, behavior, and sense of self. Examples include:

Dissociative Identity Disorder: Presence of two or more distinct personality states or an experience of possession.
Dissociative Amnesia: Inability to recall important personal information, usually of a traumatic or stressful nature.

Depressive Disorders

Characterized by persistent feelings of sadness and worthlessness and a lack of desire to engage in formerly pleasurable activities. Examples include:

Major Depressive Disorder: Persistent feelings of sadness, hopelessness, and worthlessness, along with other symptoms like insomnia or excessive sleeping, lack of energy, and changes in appetite.
Dysthymia: A mild but long-term form of depression.

Bipolar and Related Disorders

Involves periods of mood swings ranging from depressive lows to manic highs. Examples include:

Bipolar I Disorder: Characterized by manic episodes lasting at least 7 days, or by manic symptoms that are so severe that immediate hospital care is needed. Usually, depressive episodes occur as well, typically lasting at least 2 weeks.
Bipolar II Disorder: Pattern of depressive episodes and hypomanic episodes, but not the full-blown manic episodes that are typical of Bipolar I Disorder.

Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psychotic Disorders

Characterized by abnormalities in one or more of the following domains: delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thinking (speech), grossly disorganized or abnormal motor behavior (including catatonia), and negative symptoms. Examples include:

Schizophrenia: Chronic and severe mental disorder that affects how a person thinks, feels, and behaves. People with schizophrenia may seem like they have lost touch with reality.
Schizoaffective Disorder: Symptoms of schizophrenia, such as hallucinations or delusions, and symptoms of a mood disorder, such as mania or depression.

Personality Disorders

Characterized by enduring patterns of behavior, cognition, and inner experience, which deviate markedly from the expectations of the individual's culture. Examples include:

Borderline Personality Disorder: Instability in interpersonal relationships, self-image, and emotions, and marked impulsivity.
Antisocial Personality Disorder: Disregard for and violation of the rights of others.

Treatment of Psychological Disorders

Treatment for psychological disorders often involves a combination of psychotherapy and medication. The choice of treatment depends on the type and severity of the disorder. Common approaches include:

Psychotherapy: Involves talking with a mental health professional to address emotional and psychological problems. Types include cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), psychodynamic therapy, and humanistic therapy.
Medication: Medications such as antidepressants, antipsychotics, and anxiolytics can help manage symptoms of various psychological disorders.
Self-Help and Support Groups: Provide a network of support from individuals with similar experiences.

Examples and Case Studies

Understanding psychological disorders through real-life examples and case studies can provide deeper insight. Here are a few examples:

Case Study: Major Depressive Disorder
John, a 35-year-old man, experiences persistent sadness, lack of interest in activities, and changes in sleep patterns. After a thorough evaluation, he is diagnosed with Major Depressive Disorder and starts a combination of cognitive-behavioral therapy and antidepressant medication.
Case Study: Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder
Sarah, a 28-year-old woman, has repetitive, intrusive thoughts about contamination and engages in excessive hand-washing. She is diagnosed with Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder and begins exposure and response prevention therapy, along with medication.

Psychotic Disorders

Psychotic disorders are severe mental disorders characterized by a disconnection from reality. Common symptoms include delusions, hallucinations, and disorganized thinking. The most well-known psychotic disorder is schizophrenia, which affects a person's ability to think clearly, manage emotions, make decisions, and relate to others.

Neurodevelopmental Disorders

Neurodevelopmental disorders are a group of conditions that typically manifest early in development and feature developmental deficits that produce impairments of personal, social, academic, or occupational functioning. Examples include:

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD): A developmental disorder that affects communication and behavior, typically appearing in the first two years of life.
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): A disorder characterized by a persistent pattern of inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity that interferes with functioning or development.

Disruptive, Impulse-Control, and Conduct Disorders

These disorders involve problems with self-control of emotions and behaviors. They include conditions such as:

Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD): A disorder characterized by a frequent and persistent pattern of anger, irritability, arguing, defiance, or vindictiveness toward authority figures.
Conduct Disorder: A more severe condition than ODD, involving aggressive behavior that causes or threatens harm to other people or animals, destruction of property, deceitfulness or theft, and serious rule violations.

Feeding and Eating Disorders

Feeding and eating disorders involve disturbances in eating behavior. Common disorders in this category include:

Anorexia Nervosa: A disorder characterized by an intense fear of gaining weight and a distorted body image, leading to restricted food intake and excessive weight loss.
Bulimia Nervosa: A disorder involving episodes of binge eating followed by inappropriate compensatory behaviors, such as purging, fasting, or excessive exercise.
Binge-Eating Disorder: A disorder characterized by recurrent episodes of eating large quantities of food, often quickly and to the point of discomfort, without regular compensatory behaviors.

Substance-Related and Addictive Disorders

These disorders involve the excessive use of substances such as alcohol, drugs, or other addictive behaviors that lead to significant impairment or distress. Categories include:

Substance Use Disorders: Conditions characterized by an unhealthy pattern of substance use leading to significant impairment or distress. Examples include alcohol use disorder, opioid use disorder, and stimulant use disorder.
Gambling Disorder: An addiction to gambling, leading to significant problems in personal, family, or occupational functioning.

Effects of Alcohol: Some Facts

Alcohol is one of the most commonly abused substances. Here are some key facts about the effects of alcohol:

Alcohol affects the central nervous system, impairing judgment, coordination, and reaction times.
Chronic alcohol use can lead to liver diseases such as cirrhosis, cardiovascular problems, and neurological damage.
Alcohol dependence can cause withdrawal symptoms when consumption is reduced or stopped.

Commonly Abused Substances

Substance abuse involves the harmful or hazardous use of psychoactive substances. Commonly abused substances include:

Alcohol: A depressant that affects the central nervous system and can lead to addiction and various health problems.
Cannabis: Commonly known as marijuana, it can impair short-term memory, motor coordination, and judgment.
Opioids: A class of drugs that includes heroin and prescription pain relievers. They are highly addictive and can lead to overdose deaths.
Stimulants: Substances such as cocaine and methamphetamine that increase alertness, attention, and energy but can lead to severe health issues and addiction.

Characteristics of Individuals with Different Levels of Intellectual Disability

Area of Functioning	Mild (IQ range = 55 to approximately 70)	Moderate (IQ range = 35–40 to approximately 50–55)	Severe and Profound (IQ = below 20–25)
Self-help Skills	Feeds and dresses self and cares for own toilet needs	Has difficulties and requires training but can learn adequate self-help skills	No skills to partial skills, but some can care for personal needs on a limited basis
Speech and Communication	Receptive and expressive language is adequate; understands communication	Receptive and expressive language is adequate; has speech problems	Receptive language is limited; expressive language is poor
Academics	Optimal learning environment; third to sixth grade	Very few academic skills; first or second grade is maximal	No academic skills
Social Skills	Has friends; can learn to adjust quickly	Capable of making friends but has difficulty in many social situations	Not capable of having real friends; no social interactions
Vocational Adjustment	Can hold a job; competitive to semi-competitive; primarily unskilled work	Sheltered work environment; usually needs consistent supervision	Generally no employment; usually needs constant care
Adult Living	Usually marries, has children; needs help during stress	Usually does not marry or have children; dependent	No marriage or children; always dependent on others

NCERT Class 12 Psychology: Chapter 4 - Psychological Disorders Question-Answer

Question 1. Identify the symptoms associated with depression and mania.

Answer :

Depression Symptoms: Change in body weight, constant sleep problems, tiredness, inability to think clearly, agitation, greatly slowed behaviour, thoughts of death and suicide, excessive guilt, feelings of worthlessness.

Mania Symptoms: Euphoria ('high'), extremely active, excessively talkative, easily distractible.

Question 2. Describe the characteristics of children with hyperactivity.

Answer :

Hyperactive children are often diagnosed with Attention-deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Characteristics include:

Disruptive or externalising behaviours.
Inattention: Difficulty sustaining mental effort, following instructions, and keeping attention on one task.
Hyperactivity-Impulsivity: Constant motion, inability to sit still, excessive talking, and difficulty in controlling immediate reactions.
Increased likelihood of accidents and injuries.
Boys are more frequently diagnosed than girls.

Question 3. What are the consequences of alcohol substance addiction?

Answer :

Substance abuse and dependence have significant adverse effects:

Damage to family and social relationships.
Poor performance at work.
Physical hazards.
Intense craving and tolerance development.
Withdrawal symptoms when reducing or stopping use.

Question 4. Can a distorted body image lead to eating disorders? Classify the various forms of it.

Answer :

Yes, a distorted body image can lead to eating disorders. The forms include:

Anorexia Nervosa: Distorted body image leading to refusal to eat, excessive exercise, and severe weight loss.
Bulimia Nervosa: Binge eating followed by purging through vomiting or using laxatives.
Binge Eating Disorder: Frequent episodes of out-of-control eating.

Question 5. “Physicians make diagnosis looking at a person’s physical symptoms”. How are psychological disorders diagnosed?

Answer :

Psychological disorders are diagnosed through observations, interviews, and counseling. Modern diagnostics use manuals such as the DSM-IV and ICD-10 to classify and describe disorders.

Question 6. Distinguish between obsessions and compulsions.

Answer :

Obsessions: Inability to stop thinking about a particular idea or topic, often unpleasant and shameful.

Compulsions: Repetitive behaviors like counting, ordering, checking, touching, and washing.

Question 7. Can a long-standing pattern of deviant behaviour be considered abnormal? Elaborate.

Answer :

Yes, deviant behaviour can be considered abnormal. It deviates from social norms and can be maladaptive, affecting individual and group well-being. Definitions of abnormality vary with societal values and cultural contexts.

Question 8. While speaking in public the patient changes topics frequently, is this a positive or a negative symptom of schizophrenia? Describe the other symptoms of schizophrenia.

Answer :

Changing topics frequently is a negative symptom of schizophrenia. Other symptoms include:

Positive Symptoms: Delusions, disorganized thinking and speech, heightened perception, hallucinations, inappropriate affect.
Negative Symptoms: Poverty of speech, blunted and flat affect, loss of volition, social withdrawal.

Question 9. What do you understand by the term ‘dissociation’? Discuss its various forms.

Answer :

Dissociation involves a severance of connections between ideas and emotions, including:

Dissociative Amnesia: Extensive memory loss without a known organic cause.
Dissociative Fugue: Unexpected travel away from home, new identity, and inability to recall the previous identity.
Dissociative Identity Disorder: Alternate personalities, often associated with traumatic experiences.
Depersonalization: Dreamlike state, sense of separation from self and reality.

Question 10. What are phobias? If someone had an intense fear of snakes, could this simple phobia be a result of faulty learning? Analyse how this phobia could have developed.

Answer :

Phobias are irrational fears related to specific objects or situations. An intense fear of snakes (simple phobia) could develop through faulty learning, such as a traumatic experience or conditioned response.

Question 11. Anxiety has been called the “butterflies in the stomach feeling”. At what stage does anxiety become a disorder? Discuss its types.

Answer :

Anxiety becomes a disorder when it is prolonged and interferes with daily functioning. Types of anxiety disorders include:

Generalized Anxiety Disorder: Prolonged, unexplained, and intense fears not attached to any specific object.
Panic Disorder: Recurrent anxiety attacks with intense terror and physical symptoms.
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: Inability to control preoccupation with specific ideas or repeated behaviors.
Phobias: Irrational fears related to specific objects or situations.