Self And Personality

Solutions of NCERT Books, Class 12 Psychology: Chapter 2 - Self and Personality

Question 1. What is self? How does the Indian notion of self differ from the Western notion?

The self is a dynamic system that encompasses an individual's conscious and unconscious thoughts, feelings, and perceptions. It includes aspects such as self-awareness, self-esteem, self-concept, and self-efficacy.

The Indian notion of self is deeply rooted in spiritual and philosophical traditions. It emphasizes the interconnectedness of the individual with the larger cosmos and often views the self as a part of a collective whole. Concepts like "Atman" (soul) and "Brahman" (universal consciousness) are central to this perspective.

In contrast, the Western notion of self tends to be more individualistic. It focuses on personal autonomy, self-actualization, and the uniqueness of the individual. The Western view often emphasizes personal identity and the development of a distinct personal self.

Question 2. What is meant by delay of gratification? Why is it considered important for adult development?

Delay of gratification refers to the ability to resist the temptation of an immediate reward and wait for a later, often more substantial, reward. It involves self-control and the capacity to prioritize long-term goals over short-term desires.

Delay of gratification is considered important for adult development because it is associated with numerous positive outcomes. These include better academic performance, healthier relationships, greater financial stability, and overall life satisfaction. Individuals who can delay gratification are often better at managing stress, making thoughtful decisions, and achieving their long-term goals.

Question 3. How do you define personality? What are the main approaches to the study of personality?

Personality refers to the unique and relatively stable patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that characterize an individual. It encompasses the traits and characteristics that make a person distinct.

The main approaches to the study of personality include:

• Psychoanalytic Approach: Focuses on the influence of the unconscious mind and early childhood experiences on personality. Key figures include Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung.
• Trait Approach: Identifies and measures individual personality characteristics, or traits. Notable trait theories include those by Gordon Allport, Raymond Cattell, and the Big Five model.
• Humanistic Approach: Emphasizes personal growth, self-actualization, and the individual's inherent potential. Key figures include Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers.
• Social-Cognitive Approach: Examines the influence of cognitive processes and social interactions on personality. Key figures include Albert Bandura and Walter Mischel.
• Behavioral Approach: Focuses on observable behaviors and the ways in which they are learned through interactions with the environment. Key figures include B.F. Skinner and John Watson.

Question 4. What is trait approach to personality? How does it differ from type approach?

The trait approach to personality focuses on identifying and measuring individual personality characteristics, or traits. Traits are consistent patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that differ among individuals. This approach aims to quantify these traits and understand how they influence behavior.

The type approach, on the other hand, classifies people into distinct personality types based on certain characteristics. Each type represents a category with specific traits and behaviors. Examples include Carl Jung's personality types and the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI).

The key difference between the two approaches is that the trait approach views personality as a spectrum of characteristics, while the type approach categorizes individuals into fixed personality types.

Question 5. How does Freud explain the structure of personality?

Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory explains the structure of personality through three components:

• Id: The primal part of personality that operates on the pleasure principle, seeking immediate gratification of basic instincts and desires.
• Ego: The rational part that operates on the reality principle, balancing the demands of the id and the superego while considering the constraints of reality.
• Superego: The moral component that incorporates societal norms and values, striving for perfection and acting as the conscience.

According to Freud, the interplay between these components shapes an individual's personality and behavior. The ego mediates conflicts between the id and the superego, often resulting in defense mechanisms to manage anxiety and maintain psychological balance.

Question 6. How would Horney’s explanation of depression be different from that of Alfred Adler?

Kaelplessness, isolation, and insecurity, often stemming from early childhood experiences and dysfunctional relationships. Horney emphasized the role of basic anxiety and neurotic needs in contributing to depressive symptoms.

Alfred Adler, on the other hand, explained depression through the lens of individual psychology. He believed that feelings of inferiority and a lack of social interest are central to the development of depression. Adler emphasized the importance of striving for superiority and the impact of social environment and life goals on psychological well-being.

While Horney focused more on interpersonal dynamics and neurotic needs, Adler emphasized individual goals, feelings of inferiority, and social interest in understanding depression.

Question 7. What is the main proposition of humanistic approach to personality? What did Maslow mean by self-actualisation?

The humanistic approach to personality emphasizes personal growth, self-actualization, and the inherent potential for positive human qualities. It focuses on the individual's subjective experiences and the importance of free will and self-determination.

Abraham Maslow, a key figure in humanistic psychology, proposed the concept of self-actualization, which refers to the process of realizing and fulfilling one's potential and capabilities. According to Maslow, self-actualization is the highest level of psychological development, where an individual becomes the most that they can be, achieving personal growth, creativity, and peak experiences.

Question 8. Discuss the main observational methods used in personality assessment. What problems do we face in using these methods?

Observational methods in personality assessment involve watching and recording an individual's behavior in various situations. The main observational methods include:

• Naturalistic Observation: Observing behavior in a natural setting without interference.
• Controlled Observation: Observing behavior in a structured environment where certain variables can be controlled.
• Participant Observation: The observer becomes a part of the group being studied to gain deeper insights.

Problems faced in using observational methods include:

• Observer Bias: The observer's expectations and beliefs can influence their interpretation of behavior.
• Hawthorne Effect: Individuals may alter their behavior because they know they are being observed.
• Time and Resource Intensive: Observational methods can be time-consuming and require significant resources.
• Lack of Control: In naturalistic observation, there is little control over external variables that may influence behavior.

Question 9. What is meant by structured personality tests? Which are the two most widely used structured personality tests?

Structured personality tests are standardized assessments that use specific questions or statements to evaluate an individual's personality traits. These tests are designed to be objective, reliable, and valid, providing consistent results across different administrations.

The two most widely used structured personality tests are:

• Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI): A comprehensive test that assesses various psychological conditions and personality attributes.
• NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R): A test based on the Five Factor Model (Big Five) of personality, measuring traits such as openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism.

Question 10. Explain how projective techniques assess personality. Which projective tests of personality are widely used by psychologists?

Projective techniques assess personality by presenting individuals with ambiguous stimuli and asking them to interpret or describe what they see. The assumption is that people will project their unconscious thoughts, feelings, and desires onto the ambiguous stimuli, revealing aspects of their personality.

Widely used projective tests include:

• Rorschach Inkblot Test: Individuals describe what they see in a series of inkblots, revealing their inner thoughts and emotions.
• Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): Individuals create stories based on a series of ambiguous pictures, providing insights into their inner conflicts, desires, and personality traits.
• Sentence Completion Test: Individuals complete unfinished sentences, revealing their attitudes, beliefs, and personality characteristics.

Question 11. Arihant wants to become a singer even though he belongs to a family of doctors. Though his family members claim to love him but strongly disapprove his choice of career. Using Carl Rogers’ terminology, describe the attitudes shown by Arihant’s family.

Using Carl Rogers’ terminology, Arihant’s family is showing conditional positive regard. Conditional positive regard is when acceptance and love from others are dependent on meeting certain conditions or expectations. In this case, Arihant's family members claim to love him but disapprove of his choice of career because it does not align with their expectations of him becoming a doctor.

Rogers believed that for individuals to achieve self-actualization and personal growth, they need unconditional positive regard, which is acceptance and love without conditions. This kind of support allows individuals to explore and pursue their true desires and potentials without fear of rejection or disapproval.